When designing electronic circuits, standard capacitor values may not always fit your precise needs. By combining capacitors in series or parallel, engineers can create custom capacitance values and manage voltage ratings effectively.

Parallel Configuration:
Connecting capacitors in parallel is like increasing the surface area of the plates. The total capacitance is simply the sum of all individual capacitors ($C_{Total} = C_1 + C_2 + \dots$). This method is used when you need a larger capacitance value than available in a single package.

Series Configuration:
Connecting capacitors in series effectively increases the distance between the plates. The total capacitance is always lower than the smallest individual capacitor in the chain. The formula is reciprocal: $1/C_{Total} = 1/C_1 + 1/C_2 + \dots$. A major benefit of series connection is that the total voltage rating of the combination increases, allowing the circuit to handle higher voltages.

A voltage divider is one of the most fundamental circuits in electronics. It is a passive linear circuit that produces an output voltage ($V_{out}$) that is a fraction of its input voltage ($V_{in}$). It essentially distributes the input voltage among the components of the divider.

Applications:
• Level Shifting: Interfacing a 5V sensor with a 3.3V microcontroller input.
• Reference Voltages: Creating a specific voltage reference for comparators or ADCs.
• Potentiometers: Volume knobs are essentially variable voltage dividers.

Important Note: This calculator assumes an "unloaded" condition. If you connect a load (like a motor or a low-impedance input) to the output, the resistance of the load goes in parallel with R2, which will drop the voltage further. Voltage dividers should generally be used for signal references, not for power supply.

Ohm's Law is the foundation of electrical engineering. It states that the current (I) flowing through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage (V) across the two points and inversely proportional to the resistance (R).

The Magic Triangle:
• V = I × R (To find Voltage)
• I = V / R (To find Current)
• R = V / I (To find Resistance)

Power Calculation:
In addition to Ohm's Law, power (P) in Watts can be calculated using the formula P = V × I. This tool is essential for determining component ratings, such as choosing the right wattage resistor so it doesn't burn out, or calculating battery life for a given load.

The Farad (F) is the SI unit of capacitance, but it represents a massive amount of charge storage. In the real world of electronics, we almost always work with much smaller subunits.

• Picofarad (pF): $10^{-12}$ Farads. Commonly used in RF circuits, oscillators, and ceramic disk capacitors.
• Nanofarad (nF): $10^{-9}$ Farads. Often used for decoupling and timing circuits.
• Microfarad (µF): $10^{-6}$ Farads. The standard for electrolytic capacitors used in power supply filtering.
• Millifarad (mF): $10^{-3}$ Farads. Used in supercapacitors and heavy-duty power applications.

Converting between these units manually involves moving decimal points by 3, 6, 9, or 12 places, which is prone to error. This tool automates that process instantly.

Inductance is the tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a change in the electric current flowing through it. The unit of inductance is the Henry (H). Like capacitance, a whole Henry is a large unit.

• Microhenry (µH) and Millihenry (mH) are the most common units found in power inductors, chokes, and transformers.
• Nanohenry (nH) is typically seen in high-frequency RF circuits and PCB trace inductance calculations.

Correctly converting these values is vital when designing switching power supplies (buck/boost converters) and LC filters.

dBm stands for decibels relative to one milliwatt. It is a logarithmic unit used to describe power levels in radio, microwave, and fiber-optic networks.

Using dBm makes calculating gains and losses much easier. Instead of multiplying signals (as you would with Watts), you can simply add or subtract decibels.
• 0 dBm = 1 mW
• 30 dBm = 1 W (1000 mW)
• -30 dBm = 0.001 mW (1 µW)

This converter is essential for RF engineers working with signal strength, receiver sensitivity, and transmitter power output.

Energy can be measured in many ways depending on the field of study.
• Joule (J): The standard SI unit of energy. It represents the work done when a force of one newton moves an object one meter.
• Kilowatt-hour (kWh): The standard unit for electrical billing. It equals 3.6 million Joules.
• BTU (British Thermal Unit): Commonly used in heating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.
• Calorie: Used in chemistry and nutrition (technically kilocalories in food).

Engineering drawings often mix standards. Mechanical parts from Europe might be in millimeters, while US parts are in inches or mils (thousandths of an inch).

Accurate conversion is critical in PCB design (trace widths, hole sizes) and 3D printing. This tool allows quick toggling between Meters, Centimeters, Kilometers (Metric) and Inches, Feet (Imperial).

Temperature management is key in electronics (heatsink design) and chemical processes.
• Celsius (°C): Based on the freezing (0°) and boiling (100°) points of water.
• Fahrenheit (°F): Commonly used in the US for weather and industrial ovens.
• Kelvin (K): The scientific absolute scale where 0 K is absolute zero (no thermal energy). Used in physics calculations and noise temperature in RF systems.

Volume conversion is used in fluid dynamics, enclosure design (calculating internal air volume for speakers), and chemical mixing.
Standard units include Liters (L) for everyday liquids, Milliliters (mL) for precise chemistry, and Cubic Meters (m³) for large scale industrial tanks or air handling units.

While scientifically distinct (Mass is constant, Weight depends on gravity), in daily engineering and commerce, these terms are often interchanged.
This tool helps convert between the Metric system (Kilograms, Grams, Tons) which is standard in science, and the Imperial system (Pounds, Ounces) often used in the US and UK for product specifications and shipping weights.